Generally speaking there are two kinds of history: the popular history written by invaders, and the suppressed history preserved by natives. For example, in writing Libya's history most Arab historians fail to mention the Berbers and their influence on nearby civilizations (like the Egyptian, Greek or Sumerian civilisation); and instead use the phrase "ancient Libyans" or, like Gaddafi had said, "the original Arabs". Here are the words of such historian: "we write history on the basis of Libya being part of the Arab world” (History of Libya, M. Bazama, p. 95). Even after the so-called February Revolution, which many Berberists see as yet another foreign hapless operation, the situation has not changed – the same history is being propagated, replacing one tyranny with another.
Lack of Berber records, of course, has been attributed by some historians to the disastrous Roman and Arab invasions of North Africa, which saw the Libraries of Alexandria, Cyrene and Carthage burnt to the ground; with the Romans burning books to heat water in Roman baths for their soldiers to wash off the Berber-Egyptian blood. Ever since, the Egyptians were gradually driven to extinction, and Berber languages were officially barred across the entire North Africa by the Arab invaders; leading to the disappearance of Berber records, and to the growth of fake histories, most often written by foreign political writers.
The Lost Empire Without Borders
The ancient history of Libya, the undiscovered country,
is mainly known to us through a few scattered ancient Egyptian
references and loose Greek and Roman descriptions, such as those
of Herodotus, Diodorus and Sallust; the last of whom wrote
in his "Jugurthine
War" that: "Africa was in the beginning
peopled by the Gaetulians and Libyans, rude and uncivilized tribes, who
subsisted on the flesh of wild animals, or on the herbage of the
soil like cattle."
The
more recent hypo-theses pertaining the history and the
origin of the Libyans, the Berbers, are no better than Sallust's hallucinations.
Some say the ancient Libyans came from Asia; supremacists say
they escaped Europe's Ice Age; Aryans
purport they were Greek invaders; eccentric Gaddafi says they come from Yemen; some Eurocentricists
connect them with blond sea pirates; while exotic writers derive them from
Libyan Poseidon's Atlantis – somewhere between the lines of Plato's Atlas Mountain
in 'Libya'. Landing from Orion, Sirius or Draco derails the whole "pro-ject"
off the record by denying the Berbers any association
with planet 'Earth'.
The truth is simple: Libya and the whole
North African littoral was originally inhabited by an indigenous group
of Berber tribes whose linguistic unity proves an ethnic sub-stratum
of autochthons single race that existed in North Africa from the Mediterranean
to the Sudan and from the Atlantic Ocean to the Red Sea; occupying nearly half
of
Africa and comprising Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco,
the conquered Canary Islands, Mauritania, Niger, Mali, Burkina Faso, some parts of Chad and Nigeria, and of course
the Sahara herself – the Mother of Human Civilisation – the ancient centre from which civilisations
radiated to populate the Mediterranean world. Simply put there
would have been neither Egypt nor Greece without Libya.
This linguistic unity of such massive empire is part of a much larger phylum which includes Ancient
Egyptian, Chadic, Ethiopian, Omotic and most recently Semitic, in what is originally
known as Hamito-Semitic Family, but now renamed Afro-Asiatic or Afrasiatic.
Such conglomerate tribes built countless civilisations including the first ones; and ever since
shall
remain the proud Berbers of an empire without borders – the borders imposed by
European invaders together with brutal history.
Consequently the Berbers are
excluded from Libya's history, except perhaps when they come in
contact with conflict and the various conquests their countries came
to consume. Even the Ancient Egyptians made a habit of mentioning Libyans
more to do with wars than anything else, such as the invasions of
King Shishenq; in the same way modern media outlets become aware of the the Berbers only when it comes to war, as in the recent upsurge in Berber "politics" as a direct result of the UN bombing campaign that effectively destroyed Libya's entire infrastructure.
Libya’s rich archaeological
heritage was first noticed by the outside world during the Italian occupation
wars, where preliminary excavations produced some outstanding results. But although
the Second War quickly brought an end to this period of excavation, steps were
taken afterwards by the Libyan government
in association with the British administration to build the "Antiquities
Department".
Unfortunately, Libya's archaeological heritage was left neglected
and even vandalised, and many of its treasures remained scattered
across the Sahara in millions;
looted by visitors, diplomats, tomb raiders, and antiquity dealers, and
reburied by sand for future humans to rediscover – or else re-cover. The situation was made worse by the recent UN bombing campaign that endangered Libya's World Heritage Sites due to lack of law and order.
Full scientific and archaeological
survey of Libya will take decades if not centuries to complete; and therefore
proper history of Libya was never written, remains to be written, and must
include the recent genetic evidence regarding the origin of the ancient Libyans;
proving the continuous existence of the Berbers (or their ancestors) in North
Africa for at least 50,000 years.
McBurney's archaeological discoveries have
previously extended this continuous existence of Libyans to 100,000 years –
one line of living entities in one single cave – Haua
Fteah Cave – one of the largest caves in the
visible world.
Mitochondrial
DNA (mt-MRCA) genes trace all modern humans to one female
ancestor scientists called “African Eve”, who lived around 150,000 ago. Geneticists have also traced Y-chromosomal
Adam (Y-MRCA) back to Africa — specifically to West, Northwest
and Central Africa. The Y-MRCA is the patrilineal Most Recent
Common Ancestor (MRCA) from whom all living humans have descended. The identified
chromosomes belonged to either haplogroup A1a (identified in two Moroccan Berbers,
one Fulbe, and one Tuareg Berber from Niger) or A1b (identified
in three Bakola pygmies from Cameroon and one Algerian Berber).
Prehistory
Prehistory
Hundreds of millions of years ago the Sahara desert was covered by great seas.
As the seas drifted away, land slowly gave way to a great desert, much larger
than the one we have now – around five times bigger than it is today (when Africa
and Asia were still joined together). Since then, the Sahara comes and goes,
just as ice ages do nearby. One of these most recent cycles brought heavy rainfalls
to the area, and slowly turned the Sahara to wet green land, covered with lakes
and rivers, most suitable for water-thirsty animals like hippopotami, rhinoceroses,
crocodiles, elephants, and primates.
During Europe's merciless Ice Ages, the Sahara was a warm
shelter for many European refugees, who fled their homes for the luxurious and
exotic paradise of North Africa. This lost paradise was
the home of several extinct civilisations, traces of which still are preserved
across the Sahara’s cave galleries. The cultures
were so advanced of anything known elsewhere. Some of these prehistoric art engravings and drawings show "dramatic
anthropomorphic symbolism"! Such civilisations now are the
focus of many scientific disciplines from around the world, in search of human’s
primeval past. This means that the history of Libya is of paramount importance to the whole world and not just to the Berbers; and yet it is possibly the least explored and probably the most neglected.
55,000,000 To 5,000,000 Years Ago
The 55 million years old fossil of a primate found in
Morocco, and the 35 million years old Aegyptopithecus found
in Fayyum, in Egypt, are considered the oldest
primate remains ever found in Africa. The earliest known
hominoid (man-like) fossil, dubbed Oligopitchecus
Savagei and which
was also found in Fayyum, is 33 million years old. About seven
million years ago, proto-humans diverged into a separate evolutionary
tree, and soon afterwards, about five million years ago, Africa itself began
to crack along its eastern ridge, leading to the formation of the Red
Sea and the emergence of the great Rift Valleys: one running from Abyssinia to
Lake Victoria, and the other from Victoria to the Zambesi. It was suggested that
the subsidence is continuously creating new lakes, which by trapping
more sediments preserves more fossils and hence the abundance of
fossil records in East Africa.
5,000,000 To 2,000,000 Years Ago
About 3.7 million years ago, the Australopithecus
evolved to become the first ancestor who marked the beginning of
human culture, symbolised by tool making, the use of fire, and
organised settlements into perhaps what we now know as "society".
The discoveries at Ain Hanech in North Africa, when
most archaeologists believed no human artifacts older than the Pleistocene
can be found, confirmed that tool-making
(early) humans had lived in North Africa in the Pliocene. They
made hand-axes, and polygonal nodules and cores of limestone with many flakes
removed. Stone tools connected with the east African Olduvai
Gorge, from
Tanzania, were said to be the same as those found in Ain Hanech;
suggesting a link with East Africa.
2,000,000 To 1,000,000 Years Ago
Until now, Africa was considered the only continent our early
ancestors inhabited. Around 2 million years ago, they were advanced
enough to initiate the greatest journey of all times: the exploration
of planet earth. The Homo Erectus stood up and left
Africa to colonise Asia and Europe. Their bones were found in North
Africa, as far west as Casablanca, Rabat and Ternifine,
and in Asia, as far as China. Since their earliest remains in Europe
and Asia date back to about 700,000 years ago, anthropologists
have concluded that their journey must took them more than half
a million years. Those ancestors who remained in Africa evolved
into our own species, the Homo Sapiens, who also
went on to colonise Asia and Europe.
1,000,000 To 100,000 Years Ago
Around 800,000 years ago, the Sahara was hot, tropical, very
damp and covered with swamps, lakes and rivers. There were herds of
elephants and antelopes, hippopotami in the lakes, crocodiles in
the rivers, and vegetation everywhere. This period of heavy rain
lasted for hundreds of thousands of years. Then around 450,000
years ago, the earliest type of pebble-tool in Tokra (Cyrenaica)
and Bir
Dufan (Tripolitania) was replaced by the hand-axe.
About 200,000 years ago, the Neanderthals evolved, and were still
in existence when modern humans emerged about 50,000 years ago.
It was initially said that the two species did not co-exist and
thus the Neanderthals went extinct about 29,000 years ago. But, as always
is the case with premature research, scientists now say they never went extinct,
but mingled and intermarried with the new comers, just as humans still do. About
125,000 years ago the hand-axe was replaced by the Levallois or Prepared-Core technique.
Evidence from this period indicates humans were well familiar with fishing techniques,
and painted their faces with red ochre.
100,000 Years Ago
The most important Neanderthal site from Libya is the
Cave of Haua Fteah', near Marsa Sousa,
in eastern Libya; other North African sites include Jebel
Irhoud, Temara and Tangier. The Neanderthals
were fairly short and had long skulls, protruding at the back,
and heavier brows and jaws. They were the first humans to design
clothes out of animal skin and the first in line to bury their
dead. The Haua
Fteah in
eastern Libya is one of the largest prehistoric cave-sites in the
world and certainly the largest in the Mediterranean basin. A super-massive
structure, providing continuous archaeological record from 100,000
years ago to the present. It was suggested that the cave was possibly
inhabited 200,000 years ago [see Haua
Fteah for source]. According to C.B.M
McBurney (Libya in History, p. 7), "During
the Last Interglacial period
some 90,000 years ago Cyrenaica was occupied by an exceptionally
inventive and advanced group of Paleolithic hunters, among the
most technologically progressive communities so far known to have
existed at the time.” These ancient Libyan hunters lived
on wild cattle, gazelle, snails and marine molluscs, and made tools
far in advance of anything known at the time, including a bone
flute. This hardly known discovery, which McBurney brought to the
attention of the international community way back in the 1950s,
is stark evidence that humans have
existed continuously in one site in Libya for 100,000 years.
50,000 BC to 30,000 BC
About 37,000 years ago, Libya, and much of North Africa,
was occupied by tall, large-brained, and powerfully built humans, known as
the Cro-Magnon. The remains of this type were found to
be older than other Cro-Magnon samples from other sites (Europe
and Middle East), and it was widely believed that they were the
direct ancestors of the Berbers and the Iberians.
Cultural evidence from Fezzan, the home of the classical Garamantes
Kingdom,
then the most advanced people in the Sahara, goes back to more
than 30,000 years. Stone implements dated to the late Acheulean
and the Aterian (named after Bir el-Ater) cultures (100,000-30,000
BC) were found in numerous sites from the Fezzan area, and, according
to most sources, many more await discovery. Rüdiger
and Gabriele Lutz (1955) recall the cultures of Fezzan to have evolved over the
past hundreds of thousands of years and vanished under adverse conditions.“Stone
tools of bygone eras are lying about in millions, from the relics of early and
late Acheulian (up to 500.000 years), Levalloisian (100.000 years) and Mousterian
(50.000 years) to Aterian (40.000-20.000 years).” Many of the ancient Egyptian
and Berber mythical gods and goddesses are still represented on the rock art
of the Sahara, in what is known as the largest collection of prehistoric
art in the world: well over one hundred thousand sites. The
dating of Fezzan's rock drawings to 12,000 BC is widely disputed,
and many scholars now call for pushing this date farther back in
time on the light of the recent discoveries, and also strongly
criticised the old techniques originally used to date the work
some 40 or 50 years ago.
Around
20,000 years ago humans began migrating out of the area and, according to the
latest genetic evidence, headed for Iberia, Egypt, and the Middle East, where
they spread the new culture all around the Mediterranean sea. Recent archaeological
research has confirmed that the so called Ibero-maurusian culture (22,000
BC), was in fact purely Berber culture, and
that the name Ibero- was added by Aryanists for political reasons.
The skeletal remains of a population anthropologists named
"Mouillans"
were said to date between 15,000 and 10,000 BC. These settlements
were typically small, of about 100 individuals, mostly of women
and children! They posed the largest cranial capacity of any
population the world has ever seen; indicating, perhaps, their
relation to the earlier, large-brained Cro-Magnons. Dr Carleton
Coon has pointed out that the Mouillan features have never before
evolved in such combinations in any race at that time in human
history.
Berber Garamantes
The Berber Garamantian Period
("Some years ago Diole
wrote: "The name of the Garamantes . . . does little
more, really, than designate our ignorance." C. Daniels.)
The breathtaking treasures of the Sahara's prehistoric
drawings and engravings are perhaps the best measure of the
level of civilisation attained by these peoples.
Sadly, this world heritage material is largely neglected
and still remains to this day scattered across
the Sahara desert as if it were historical garbage, and even intentionally desecrated
and looted. Today, mainly
the Tuareg confederacies remain the keepers of the great Sahara Desert. Wars
and famines in Africa still play their role in population flow; if not natures
way to fuel the engine of evolution. This ancient civilisation did not suddenly
appear from nowhere, but a continuation
of earlier continuations. The archaeological artifacts and stone tools discovered
in various sites from Fezzan were dated to the late Acheulean and the Aterian
cultures (circa 100,000-30,000 BC.). This area was also the home of the
Berber Garamantes Kingdom, considered to be Libya's first
indigenous empire. They initially run their kingdom from
the nearby capital Zinchecra (on
the hills of Messak Settafet),
then from Germa or Garama (today's
Jerma) in the first century AD, so named after their
eponymous ancestor Garamas ("the
first of men"),
who was, according to mythology, the son of the glorious
Sun, who offered
Mother Earth a sacrifice of the sweet acorn. The Garamantes
were placed by Pliny twelve days journey from the Augilae, and ten days
by Herodotus, in
the interior of Libya. They occupied the most habitable region of the Sahara:
the Wadis el-Agial and Sciati and the oases from Murzuk to
Zuila. Herodotus informs us that the Garamantes spread soil over salt to
sow their seeds, and hunt in four-horse chariots; while archaeological
discoveries indicate the Garamentian cities were thriving
urban centres, with markets and public entertainment forums. From
the archaeological remains of Germa, the city appears to have
had towers and a square market, used as a transit point for
caravans and for the horses the Garamentes then exported to Rome.
Some of Germa's
archaeological finds can be found in Germa
Museum.
There is no doubt that the Athena of Herodotus, whom the Amazon worshipped
around Lake Tritonis, was none other than the Libyan Goddess Tannit. Poets and
scholars of all ages knew Her as the Goddess Neith, whom the ancient Egyptians
adopted as Nit, long before the Phoenicians returned to venerate as Tanit.
The following Arabic text, also displayed
under the stone, describes the above symbol of Tannit .
Temehu.com's translation of the Arabic text at the Museum:
"The Goddess Tannit. Tannit is regarded as one of the most famous
and important Punic goddesses in Tripolitania. She is the wife of the Punic god
Bal Hamon. She was the goddess of sowing, harvest and fertility, and a sky goddess
essentially associated with the moon. Her symbol, known as the symbol of Tannit,
is a triangle representing the human body, surmounted by a circle representing
the head, and separated by a horizontal line which represents the hands. The
worship of the goddess Tannit emerged after the 5th century BC. She appears to
be of Libyan origin. This piece is from the 2nd century BC.
"
[End of translation.]
The text is clearly written by an "Arab" archaeologist or official who does not appear to be aware of the antiquity of the Libyan Goddess Neith. Neith was the main Goddess of the native Berbers across North Africa. Historical and archaeological records from the Egyptian Delta show Neith to have been the main Goddess of the Libyan (Berber) natives of the Egyptian Delta from long before the forced unification of Egypt by Menes around 3300 BC. This means that the Berbers' veneration of the Goddess Neith in North Africa goes back to Pre-Dynastic times - thousand of years before the Phoenicians arrived to adopt both: Tannit as Tanit, and Amon as Bal-Amon, and long before the Pharaohs of Egypt came to worship her under various names including Net, Nit and Nut.
Libyan Amazons
The Libyan Berber Amazons
According to several historical records, the Libyan birthplace of the Goddess
Neith, whom the Greeks adopted as Athena, as has been pointed out by Robert Graves, Plutarch,
Diodorus, and Herodotus, was also the traditional homeland of the warrior women
known as the Libyan Amazons, in the western parts of Libya – particularly around
the legendary Lake Tritonis. The world of the Amazons was ruled by warrior women,
in which they followed a manner of life unlike that which prevailed among other
races of the time. There were a number of fake tales about removing one of their
breasts in order to be able to shoot better without
presenting any evidence; leading to careful mythographers to suggest that these
were no more than mere patriarchal allegations to discredit matriarchy; and hence
the existence of the Amazons was dismissed as "myth".
According to Robert Graves, Diodorus Siculus' legend regarding the Libyan Atlantians,
from whom Libyan Amazons seized their city Cerne, cannot be archeologically dated,
but he makes it precede a Libyan invasion of the Aegean Islands and Thrace. See
Libyan Mythology for more.
Ancient Egypt Berbers
The Native Berbers of The Ancient Egyptian Period: 3300 BC to 750 BC
Egyptian records inform us that many parts of Libya and Egypt
itself were inhabited by various Libyan
tribes, the most prominent of which were the Temehu,
the Tehenu, the Ribu, and the Meshwesh.
From the extent of the Temehu's territories, it is evident that
they comprised a number of tribes, occupying much
of the Sudan and possibly all the way to Fezzan. Several historians have pointed
out that the Temehu and the Tehenu were the ancestors of the
present day Tuareg. When Greek and Roman historians arrived in
Libya and Egypt, the name Ribu became Libu,
whence present day “Libya”, and the name Meshwesh became Masuch (Herodotus), Maschouacha (Chabas), Maksiz (Ptolemy)
and Mazic (Latin
inscriptions), whence present day Tamazight,
and thus Imazighen – the generic name
used to describe the indigenous inhabitants of North Africa as
a whole. The ancient Egyptians and the Berbers are strongly related
tribes and share one common origin. Both languages: Ancient Egyptian
(not to be confused with current Arabic Egyptian)
and Berber ('Tamazight') are sister languages belonging to the
same linguistic branch of the Afro-Asiatic linguistic family.
The cultural traits of the ancient Egyptians and the Libyan Berbers
and their mythologies and religions are also closely related,
if not the same. Inscriptions from
the Old Kingdom are perhaps the earliest recorded
information we have about the Berbers of Libya (excluding the
recorded pre-history of rock art). Before
King Menes forcibly unified Egypt and invaded Lower Egypt, the
Delta was primarily inhabited by Libyan Berbers who worshipped
the Goddess Tannit, the Cat-goddess Bast and the Sun-god
Amon. The Palermo
stone further illustrates the antiquity
of Libyans in Lower Egypt by listing a succession of Libyan pre-Dynastic
kings and queens from Lower Egypt. The Libyans however regained
control over Egypt about (ca. 945 BC), by establishing the Libyan Dynasties
on the hands of the Libyan King Shishenq or Shishonk.
The Phoenicians
The Arrival of the Phoenicians: 1000 BC To 200 BC
The Phoenicians
originally descended from North Africa as attested by linguistic
evidence, where Proto-Semitic itself diverged from Proto-Berbero-Libyan
(Diakonoff, 1975, 1981) about 7000 years ago. According to the
legend of Dido,
which some sources say was a Roman invention to discredit Carthage:
its main rival, the Berber king Iarbas granted Dido as
much land as could be covered by an ox-hide; on which they settled
among the native Berbers and quickly adopted Berber gods and
traditions, like the Libyan Goddess Tannit whom they loved as
Tanit, and the Libyan Amon whom they worshipped as Bal-Amon,
in the same way the Greeks, later on, made him Zeus-Amon. Unlike the later arrivals (invasions),
the Phoenicians were said to have signed treaties of
cooperation with the native Berbers. When the Persians
invaded Egypt and sent their ambassadors
to Libya asking the Berbers to help the Persians take over Carthage,
the Libyans replied saying that they will not take up arms against
their brothers, and thus succeeded in saving Libya from yet another
catastrophic war. The Phoenicians settled in a number of
cities including Leptis Magna,
Oea (Tripoli), Sabratha, and Carthage (Qert Hadasht 'The
New Village'), which was founded in 814 BC. By 517 BC, this
Berber-Phoenician empire was gaining influence all around the
Mediterranean; eventually bringing terror and fear to
the Romans' hearts.
The Greeks established 5 colonies in Cyrenaica, around the
seventh century BC, which became known as the Pentapolis:
the five cities of Cyrene, Apollonia, Ptolemais,
Taucheira and Berenice (Benghazi). Evidence indicates that some
of these settlements had indeed existed before the Greeks' arrival. Apparently,
the city of Cyrene was
invaded upon the oracular advise of Apollo at Delphi,
by the Greeks of Thera (modern Santorini), and thus their arrival
was portrayed as a divine mission, rather than a military conquest.
The Pentapolis enjoyed a significant degree of autonomy, and Greek influence
was limited to the coastal regions. The Berber areas, further south, remained
free from Greek rule. The fertile Green Mountain (Jebel al-Akhdar) supplied
Greece with livestock, grain, wine and the unique Cyrenaican plant silphium.
The level of civilisation attained by Cyrene was so high that it quickly became
one of the most cultural, philosophical and academic cities in North Africa
and produced some of the finest scholars of the time. The popular philosophy
of Cyrene was that of moral cheerfulness and happiness. Shortly after the death
of Alexander the Great in
323 BC, only eight years after his armies arrived in Cyrenaica,
his empire was divided among his Macedonian generals and thus
Cyrene and Egypt went to Ptolemy. Just over two hundred years
later, the Greek influence began to dwindle and the last Greek
ruler, Ptolemy Apion, finally surrendered Cyrenaica to Rome.
The Roman Invasions
Hannibal
When the Roman arrived in North-West Africa, there were a
number of Berber Kingdoms in existence, the most influential
of which was Numidia or Numidae. According to Herodotus,
the Libyans comprised two major groups: the agricultural
population of the coastal regions, and the shepherds or the
Nomads, of which Numidae is the Latin form. The
Numidae of the Second Punic War were essentially the Berber tribes
of the Masaesyli and the Massyli, the subjects
of the Berber kings Syphax and Masinissa respectively.
The Numidian kingdom of Masinissa eventually included all of
Tripolitania. When Hannibal invaded Italy, in his adventure
across the Alps (shattering big rocks in the way by heating them with fire
and pouring wine along the cracks), he reached Rome and laid siege
to the capital city for nearly 12 years.
During these years the Roman
emperor with his generals and slaves were held prisoners in their own capital.
Here most historians agree that Hannibal had committed his greatest mistake:
not attacking Rome whilst he laid siege. Apparently
historians also say Hannibal's morality prevented him from attacking
Roman women and children in their own homes, and instead he hopped the men will
come out and give him a decent fight.
Instead of seemingly
fighting to death, their treachery inspired them to plot behind
the besieged city walls to divert the war to North Africa and take the fight
back to Carthage. When Carthage was attacked by the Romans the Carthaginian
government fell in the trap, just as others still do today, and immediately
recalled Hannibal from Rome. Hearing the order to return to Carthage Hannibal
knew exactly what the Romans had in mind, but he had to fulfil
his "national duty" – against the advice of his most closest
generals – and returned to defend his homeland.
Hannibal (247-183 BC):
219 : Siege of Saguntum
218 : Capture of Saguntum ,Declaration of War.
218 : Hannibal sets out from New Carthage.
218 : Hannibal crosses the Alps, Battle of R. Ticinus.
218 : Battle of R. Trebia.
218 : Hannibal crosses the Apennines, Roman successes.
217 : Elections in Rome,Hannibal crosses R. Arno.
217 : Battle of Lake Trasimene.
217 : Hannibal's escape from Campania, Hannibal at Gereonium.
217: Minucius's successes against Hannibal.
216 : Elections in Rome, Hannibal at Capua.
216 : Carthage receives news of Canna.
216 : Hannibal repulsed at Nola, Siege of Casilinum.
216 :Roman army destroyed by Boii.
216 : Hasdrubal stopped from leaving Spain.
215 : Elections in Rome, Alliance between Carthage and Macedon.
215 : Capture of Carthaginian generals in Sardinia.
214 : Conspiracy in Syracuse, Marcellus in Sicily.
214 : Massacre at Henna.
213 : Roman overtures to king Syphax
212 : Hannibal enters Tarentum, Carthaginians take Thurii.
212 : Tiberius Gracchus eliminated.
212 : Plague at Syracuse, death of Archimedes.
212 : Death of the Scipios.
212 : Lucius Marcius rallies Roman remnant in Spain.
212 : Marcellus victorious at Agrigentum.
211 : Hannibal marches to relieve Capua, Battle of R. Volturnus.
211 : Hannibal's march on Rome, Battle of R. Anio.
211 : Hasdrubal's escape from Nero in Spain.
210 : Alliance between Rome, Aetolian League, and Pergamum.
210 : Fire in Rome, Hannibal destroys Herdonea.
210 : Envoys from Syphax in Rome, raid on African coast.
208 : Raid on African coast, Plilip V intervenes in Greece.
207 : Hasdrubal crosses the Alps, Hasdrubal besieges Placentia.
207 : Hannibal routed at Grurnentum.
207 : Hasdrubal's letter to his brother Hannibal intercepted.
207 : Death of Hasdrubal (Hannibal's brother).
207 : Successful raid on Utica.
206 : Livy's tribute to Hannibal, Masinissa joins the Romans.
206 : Scipio and Hasdrubal meet Syphax, Slaughter at Astapa .
206 : Meeting between Scipio and Masinissa, surrender of Gades.
205 : Elections in Rome, Fabius's attack on Scipio in Senate.
205 : Laelius raids African coast .
204 : General peace in Greece.
204 : Pact between Carthage and Syphax.
204 : Scipio crosses to Africa, Masinissa comes to join Scipio.
204 : Hannibal defeated near Croton.
203 : Burning of Carthaginian camp at Utica.
203 : Syphax defeated at Great Plains.
203 : Naval battle off Carthage, final defeat and capture of
Syphax.
203 : Masinissa enters Cirta and meets Sophonisba.
203 : Sophonisba's death.
203 : Carthaginian envoys ask for peace, Rome rejoices over African
victories.
203 : Mago and Hannibal recalled from Italy.
203 : Hannibal leaves Italy, Hannibal lands at Leptis.
202 : Hannibal marches to Zama, meeting with Scipio.
202 : Battle of Zama : Rome wins.
195 : Hannibal's reforms in Carthage, Hannibal's flight
to Antiochus
193 : Hannibal's agent Aristo in Carthage.
191 : Hannibal's advice to Antiochus.
189 : Battle of Magnesia, senate ratifies peace with Antiochus
.
187 : Prosecution of Scipio Africanus and his death.
183 : Death of Hannibal: betrayed by king Prusias,
Hannibal took
poison, rather than surrender.
After the Punic Wars
with Rome, Carthage was
finally reduced to rubble and razed to the ground in 146 BC.
Hannibal was unharmed and left for Syria. From Syria he went
to Bithynia, in Asia, where its king Prusias eventually betrayed him to the Romans.
Hearing the news of the Roman army in their way to arrest him, he, like Cleopatra,
took poison in 183.
With Hannibal and Carthage out of the way, Rome was ready
to spread terror around the Mediterranean world and across Europe and the Middle
East. The result was total cultural devastation across Europe where linguists
had concluded that 90% of Europe's indigenous languages had gone extinct as a
direct result of the Roman invasions – and hence subsequently the spread of
Latin across Europe. Many of the other languages around the Mediterranean and
the Middle East, including Ancient Egyptian, had also disappeared except Africa's
Berber and Europe's Basque's Euskara – both of which are among the oldest languages
in the world, both of which are related, and both of which appear destined to
live to the end of the world.
Shortly after the Carthaginian-Roman battle at Zama,
the Berber kingdoms began to suffer the impact of the Roman invasions, and by
46 BC, Julius Caesar deposed the final Numidian king, Juba I; and thereafter
Tripolitania was incorporated into the province of Africa
Proconsularis, to begin the export of goods, animals and
slaves to Rome.
Once the coastal regions were under Roman control, the
Roman generals wanted to do what no invader of Libya had done before:
to conquer the Sahara. After their initial expeditions
into the Garamantian empire, in 20–19 BC, and
later on in 69–70 AD, the Romans signed a trade and military
treaty with the Garamantian chiefs, and the two became trading partners, as
evidenced by the pottery
shreds and other artifacts unearthed in Fezzan. By the end of
the first century AD Rome had completed the pacification of Sirtica
(the region now know as the Gulf of Sirte), and Cyrenaica was
handed over to them by the Greeks. Had Carthage survived, and left alone since,
the Berbers would have probably landed on Jupiter long before Galileo saw
its moons.
The Carnage: The Roman's Fake History of Carthage
And Their Lies About The Berbers.
Then in the 5th century (around 429 AD) Libya was invaded by the Germanic
Vandals under the command of Genseric. In 432 the Vandals seized Hippo Regius
and made it their first capital in North Africa; before invading the province
of Africa Proconsularis and seizing Carthage on the 19th of October 439. Consequently
the Vandals strengthened their positions and proceeded towards Rome which they
ransacked. The Romans thereafter failed on a number of occasions to defeat
the Vandals, except perhaps the defeat of the Vandal-Berber army in 457 by
Emperor Majorian at Garigliano. The Berbers, on the other hand, having been
already exhausted by centuries of wars against the earlier invaders, have defeated
the Vandals on a number of occasions including two major defeats between 496–530.
It was not until the death of Genseric on the 25th of January 477 that
the Vandals empire began to decline. After the succession of Hilderic (523–530)
the army was left to Hoamer, who was defeated by the Berbers; leading to an
internal revolt among the royal Vandals that ended up with Hilderic, Hoamer
and their relatives being imprisoned; before the end of the Vandals Kingdom
at the hands of the Byzantine Belisarius in 534. Once again the Berbers find
themselves in limbo, being pushed back to square one, while the Romans regained
control over North Africa.
The Arab Invasions
Contrary to popular belief the Berbers' resistance to the Arab invasions was
long and fierce. Both king Kusila and the Berber priestess-queen Kahina fiercely
resisted the invasions. Like the Arab war generals themselves had said (in
their wars against queen Kahina): whenever a Berber tribe is
slaughtered, another emerged from the mirage like the jinn of the desert.
It must be noted that the Berbers had no problem with Islam, but they strongly
resisted the Arab conquest, the political invasions that robbed them of their
sovereignty.
When queen Kahina sent a message to Hassan Ben Nua'man (the general of
the Arab army) enquiring about the reason for their invasion, and Hassan replied
that they had a message from God, the queen replied: "let
us have the message and go back to your homeland".
Queen and General Kahina foretold her destiny and died in battle defending
her nation. Some Arabs find it blasphemous for a Berber to speak about Berber
historical personalities as heroes, and to those one can only repeat that
the prophetess Kahina had no problem with
the message of Islam but strongly objected to the messenger invading her Kingdom.
However, those Berbers
who refused to accept Islam, according to Oric Bates (in quoting Arab sources)
were instead ordered to pay jizya ('tax'). Those who did not have
the money to pay the tax were given permission by Amr Ibn el-Asi to sell
their women and children:
here is how Oric Bates reported the incident:
"Having taken Alexandria, Amr marches on Barkah. He "proceeded
at the head of his troops," writes el-Biladuri, "toward the Moghreb,
and attacked Barkah, a city of the Pentapolis. He gave peace to its population,
demanding a tribute of 3000 dinars, which they might pay by selling such
of their children as they wished to dispose of.' . . . Amr Ibn el-Asi wrote
in the treaty which he gave to the Luatah Berbers, of the country of Barkah:
' you shall have the right of selling your children and your women to pay
off your share of the tribute.' " - The inhabitants seem to have collected
and remitted this tribute without the unwelcome aid of Arab tax-gatherers"
[The
Eastern Libyans, p. 240].
[It must be noted that the sources Oric Bates quoted were Arab sources, namely:
Ibn Salih, who reported the story on the authority of el-Leyts Ibn Sa'ad,
who himself reported it from Yezid Ibn Abi Habib.]
In the year 642 Amr Ibn el-Asi arrived in Cyrenaica and established his base at Barqa. A few
years later he moved towards Tripolitania, removed the remaining
Byzantine garrisons, and took control of Tripoli.
After
Amr Ibn el-Asi, the Caliph sent general Uqba bin Nafi, who
moved towards Fezzan in 663 and took Germa, before claiming
the province of Africa in 670 AD, where he established another military
base at Kairouan (al Qayrawan), in preparation to attack Byzantine-controlled
Carthage, which they
finally took in 693 AD.
It was reported that the orders were
given to raze Carthage to the ground, once more, after having been already ransacked
by the Romans not long ago. Similar orders were also given by the Arabs in relation
to Sabratha, the capital of the Berber Nafusa tribes. Shortly
afterwards, the Muslims arrived in Morocco, before they crossed to Spain,
under the command of the Berber general Tariq Bin Zayyad.
By the seventh century,
a power struggle ensued between the supporters of the rival claimants to the caliphate,
thereby creating two sects: the Sunni and the Shia. About 200 years later, Shia
missionaries of the Ismaili sect succeeded in converting the Kutama of Kabylia
and set them against the Sunni Aghlabids, where they took Kairouan
in the following year.
Soon afterwards the wars broke out, once
again, between the Fatimid of North Africa and Baghdad; eventually
leading the Fatimid caliph to invite Bani Hilal and Bani Salim bedouin tribes
from the Arabian peninsula. It is these two tribes that signaled the arrival
of Arab tribes in North Africa and began the process of Arabisation.
In short, after nearly three centuries of wars (on and off) with the Arabs,
the Berbers succeeded in maintaining some form of independence from the sultans
of the Middle East; leading to the Berber dynasties to remain very powerful
down to the 16th century; after which they began to decline.
Leo Africanus (1485-1554) reported that during his travels in the 16th century the northern region of North Africa was broken up into small independent kingdoms ruled by Berber princes, while the mountain tribes and the desert Berbers recognised no ruler but local Berber chiefs. Among the most powerful Berber monarchs that survived nearly 900 years of Arab invasions were the King of Tlemsen and the King of Tunis.
In fact the disruption had began only after the Spanish invasions between 1505 and 1510 resulted in the fall of Oran, Dellys, Bougia, Mostaganem, Tlemsen and Algiers; before the Turkish Pashas took control of Algeria in 1515, from which they extended their dominance to the whole of North Africa except Morocco.
In 1830 the French seized Algiers to pave the way for the disastrous European invasions. Even during the early years of European colonisation the French and the Spanish failed to displace the Berber kings and chiefs despite the firepower they commanded including chemical weapons (which they used to destroy the Berber Rif Republic).
It was only after long decades of wars with European invaders, including the "Libya Wars" (the longest resistance to European colonialism in history, in which more than 100,000 Libyans disappeared in Mussolini's fascist dungeons), that the Berbers were finally outmaneuvered, and consequently the official Arabisation of the various
Berber confederacies began to take visible shape. Thus it was the colonial masters, who
first arrived as explorers, mapping the tribes and the rich-resources of the
continent, then returned as colonisers, who began the process of dividing Africa by imposing the political
borders now we know as 'Arab countries', in total disregard for the ethnic
integrity of the native Berber tribes they came to subjugate; effectively handing control over to the installed Arab monarchs.
Therefore the European invasions had achieved what the Arab invaders failed to do in almost 1200 years: destroy the northern Berber kingdoms, and also destroy most of the Berber Tuareg confederacies of the Great Sahara that previously resisted all forms of foreign pacification.
Turkish & Spanish Invasions
After a short lull in Libya's history, it was the turn of
the Spaniards and the Turks to share the spoils of the Great White
Sea. During the 14th and 15th centuries the Spaniards were wreaking
havoc across the waters of the Mediterranean. The genocide of
the natives of the Canary Islands was completed in around one
century, and the survivors were sold as first-class slaves in Europe.
And soon afterwards, they destroyed Tripoli in 1510 AD
and built a fortified naval base from the rubble.
Throughout
the 16th century, Spain and the Ottoman Turks were fighting over
the control of the Mediterranean, just as the Phoenicians
and the Romans did before. Chaos was the king and piracy became
an established business on both sides of the Great White Sea. By 1551 AD the knights
were driven out of Tripoli by
Turkish pirates, and by 1580 AD the chiefs of Fezzan finally
allied with the Turks.
By the early 18th century, the Karamanli
dynasty rose to fame, mainly in trafficking slaves and piracy,
activities which eventually invited European powers to take
control of Africa. Some European governments began sending a
series of expeditions to all parts of Africa, collecting maps and information
about the hidden continent and "its tribes". The
British were the first to campaign for ending slavery; and instead built a global
empire.
The spread of the Ottoman Empire saw Libya come under a state
of disarray and chaos, where corruption and cruelty were the
main characteristics of the period. In September 1911 Italy
accused Turkey of arming tribesmen in Libya and soon afterwards declared
war and captured Tripoli in October the 3rd, before it occupied
Cyrenaica's Tobruk and Benghazi.
The following timeline covers the main historical events that took place in North Africa since the Arab invasions in the 7th century.
640-641
The Arab general Amr Ibn el-Asi took Egypt, followed by Barqah in 641
AD.
642-647
Under the command of Amr Ibn el-Asi the Arab army moved on towards Tripolitania,
where they removed the remaining Byzantine garrisons and took control of Tripoli
in 647 AD. Sends Uqba ibn Nafi (O'qba ibn Nafea') toward Zwilah.
663
Uqba ibn Nafi moves
towards Fezzan and takes Germa.
670
Foundation of Kairouan (Qairawan). Uqba ibn Nafi (Oqba
Ben Nafea') claims
the Roman province of Africa in 670 AD and establishes his military base at Qayrawan;
where he built the Great Mosque of Kairouan, the oldest mosque in Africa, widely
regarded as the fourth holiest place, after Mecca, Medina and Alqudus (Jerusalem).
683
Berber king
Kusila kills Uqba ibn Nafi and rules the country from Kairouan as a
Christian.
690-698
Kahina Dihya fought her final wars: in 693 she defeated
Hassan Ben Nua'man, who then retreated to Tripoli, waited for reinforcements,
and a few years later re-grouped. As she had predicted she dies fighting in 698.
700-705
Creation of the Province of Afriqya; the Maghreb (North Africa)
was incorporated into the Islamic empire.
706-710
Islamic influence spreads
to various parts of North Africa, as far as the Sanhaja Berbers
south of Mauritania; forcing the Sanhaja to start their trans-Saharan journeys
from Wadi Draa to reach Senegal by means of camels, and thus were considered
to be the first to make full use of the "ship
of the desert".
711
The Berber general
Tariq Ben Zeyyad (Tariq Ibn Ziyad) conquers the Kingdom of Spain
with a Berber army and advisors. Tariq's commander, Musa ibn Nusair, followed
with substantial reinforcements.
732
The Arabs' defeat at
Poitiers.
739
Berber rebellions
followed by Arab rebellions in Morocco.
750
Islamic Umayyads at
Damascus overthrown by Abbasids.
755
Arrival of Umayyad
A'bd al-Rahman in Spain; Umayyad dynasty founded in Andalus.
A'bbasids regain
control of Afriqya.
788-796
Fes founded by
ldris; ldrisid dynasty established in Morocco. Death of
A'bd al-Rahman I; successor son Hisham 1 (Andalus). Death d
Hisham I; successor son Hakam I. Series of rebellions in cities
(Andalus).
800
Ibrahim ibn
al-Aghlab founds Aghlabid dynasty in Afriqya. Besides the
Sanhaja's trans-Saharan trade routes, two more
routes emerged around this time: one from Algeria to middle Niger,
and the other from Tripolitania to Lake Chad.
800-900
The Berbers of the
Sahara and Sanhaja and the Nilo-Saharans founded the
Kingdom of Kanim (east of Lake Chad ), the Kingdom of Songhay
(central Niger), and the Kingdom of Mali.
813-822
Emigration of
fighters from Spanish Cordova to Fes in Morocco, Afriqiya
and Egypt. A series of rebellions in cities in Afriqya. Death
of Hakam I; successor son A'bd al-
Rahman II (Andalus). People emigrate from Kairouan to Fes.
827
Invasion of Sicily
from Afriqya; continues for 100 years.
852
Death of
A'bd al-Rahman II; succeeded by his son Muhammad I.
868-888
Tulunid Period,
(Ibn Tulun ) in Egypt. Death of Muhammad I; successor
son al-Mundhir (Andalus). Death of al-Mundhir.
900
The Muslims now have
independent hereditary rulers: Aghlabids in Tunisia, and Tulunids
in Egypt. The Idrisids of Morocco and the Umayyads of Spain
did not recognise the authority of Baghdad Caliphs.
900-912
In 902 AD a Shia revolt broke out in eastern
Algeria. In 909 al-Mahdi founds Fatimid dynasty
of caliphs (Afriqya). By 912 the Mahdi (the head
of the Fatimid line) founded the city of Mahdiya
from which he ruled Tunisia and Algeria.
912
Umayyads gradually recover power (Andalus).
927
War in northern Morocco between Umayyads and
Fatimid and their Berber allies (the war continued for more
than 70 years).
928
Abd ar-Rahman III takes title of caliph
(Andalus).
961
Death of Abd al-Rahman III; successor
son Hakam II (Andalus).
969
The Fatimid invaded Egypt and ruled Palestine and parts of
Arabia. They left Tripolitania, Tunisia and Algeria to the
Zirids (a Sanhaja Berber family who assisted the Fatimid). The
Fatimid organised the arrival of Benu Hilal and Benu Salim
Arab tribes from Arabia into Egypt and Libya.
972
The Fatimid caliph moves to Cairo, leaving
Zirids in charge of Afriqya.
976
Death of Hakani II; successor infant son
Hisham II.
980
Morocco broke away
from the Fatimid's rule.
1002
Ibn Abi A'mir
AI-Mansur (Almanzor) becomes regent for the Umayyads war on
Christians of northern Spain. Al-Manzor died in 1002.
1009
Overthrow of Al-Manzor's son (Andalus).
1013
Sack of Cordova.
1014
The Zirids of Algeria broke away from the Fatimid
rule.
1017-18
The Zanata Berbers took Tripoli; Arabs seized
Barqa; the massacre of Ismaili officials.
1031
End of Umayyad dynasty. Period of Little Kings,
rulers of city states led by Seville (Andalus).
1040
lbn Yasin forms Almoravids (al-Murabit'un - the
men of the monastery) in the Sahara, and begins his holy
war (Morocco).
1048
Zirid Mu'izz repudiates Fatimid (Afriqya).
1049
Tripolitania and Tunisia broke away from the
Fatimid.
1050
By now Almoravids had conquered the western
Sahara (Sanhaja Berbers), and seized Sijilmasa in 1054, and
Awdaghust in 1055.
1052
Mu'izz defeated by the tribes of Banu
Hilal.
1057
Death of Ibn Yasin; successor Abu Bakr
(Morocco); Mu'izz abandons Kairouan for Mahdia
(Afriqya).
1056-1082
Almoravid armies conquered Morocco and western Algeria
1069
Abu Bakr founds Marrakesh, installs Yusuf ibn
Tashfin (Morocco); Almoravids under Yusuf ibn Tashfin
conquer Morocco.
1070
Afriqya divided into city states and
tribal territories (Afriqya).
1076-1083
Almoravid conquered Songhay and Ghana.
1085
Capture of Toledo
by Castile; Muslims appeal to Almoravid Yusuf ibn
Tashfin.
1086-1090
Yusuf ibn Tashfin
conquers Andalus and exiles Little Kings to Morocco.
1094-1099
El Cid takes
Valencia (Andalus); El Cid besieged in Valencia; Yusuf ibn
Tashfin takes the title (Commander of the Muslims); and
Andalus and Morocco became united.
1100
Bani Hilal take
control of eastern Algeria and Tunisia, the Zirid princes still
holding out in Bougie and Mahdiya. On the other side, Banu
Salim are taking control of Libya (only Cyrenaica
and Tripoli).
1106
Death of Yusuf ibn
Tashfin, successor son Ali (Morocco).
1118-1120
Ibn Tumart forms Almohads in High Atlas
(Morocco); Almohads is a political and religious
movement of the Zenata Berbers of the Atlas; Death of Ibn Tumart in
1130, succeeded by his caliph Abd al-Mu'min.
1135-1143
Djerba invaded and taken by Normans
of Sicily (Afriqya); Abd al-Mu'min begins his campaign against
Almoravids; Death of A'li ibn Yusuf ibn Tashfin, successor
son Tashfin.
1145-1147
Almohads defeated Almoravids
and took Morocco and Spain; death of Tashfin ibn Ali ibn
Yusuf ibn Tashfin; Norman conquest of Tripoli; Almohads capture
Seville; flight of Almoravid lbn Ghaniya to Majorca; Andalus
substantially independent.
1147-1163
Moroccan Marrakesh captured by Almohads; Almohad Abd
al-Mu'min annexes Central Maghreb; Almohads conquer
Afriqya, drive Normans from coastal cities in Afriqya;
Death of Abd al-Mu'min, successor son Abu Ya'qub
(Morocco).
1171
Kurdish Saladin (Salah'-Addin )
transformed Egypt into a military power and used it to wage his
wars against the Crusaders to recapture Palastine after he took over
from the last Fatimid ruler and founded the Ayyubid Dynasty in
Egypt.
1172
Murcia taken by Almohad Abu Ya'qub; Andalus,
Morocco and Afriqiya united in Almohad Empire - capitals Seville
and Marrakesh.
1184
Death of Almohad Abu Ya'qub, successor son
Abu Yusuf; Beginning of doctrinal war between Almohad
caliph and Almohad Shaykhs.
1195-1199
Almohads defeat Castile at Alarcos; Invasion of
Afriqya by Almoravids from Majorca; Death of Almohad
Abu Yusuf, successor son al-Nasir.
1203-1207
Almohads (Berbers of Zenata) conquer Majorca
from Almoravids; Defeat of Almoravids by Almohad al-Nasir;
Abu Muharnmad al-Hafsi made viceroy at Tunis.
1212-1213
Defeat of Almohads
by the Christians at Las Navas de Tolosa; Death of Almohad
al-Nasir, successor son al-Mustansir.
1127
Murder of caliph
al-Adil; his brother al-Ma'mun repudiates Almohad doctrin;
Al-Ma'mun invades Morocco, massacres Almohad Shaykhs, and takes
power at Marrakesh; Break-up of Almohad empire: Andalus, Morocco
and Afriqya gave up their unity.
1230s
lbn Hud takes
power in Andalus; Yaghmurasin takes power at Tlemcen; Abu
Zakariya al-Hafsi assumes leadership of Almohads, and founds
Hafsid dynasty at Tunis in 1236 AD. In Mali the prince Sundiata
re-established Mali's independence, and took Songhay,
Tadmekka, Walata and Ghana.
1239
The foundation of
Ziyanid Dynasty in Algeria; the Berber Marinids
replaced the Almohads in Morocco.
1248
Ferdinand takes
Seville.
1250-1517
Marinid dynasty established at Fes.
1269
Almohad were replaced by another Berber tribe
from the Zenata of Atlas - Ind Marin, who formed the Marinids
Dynasty in Morocco.
1270
Turkish Mamluk in Egypt.
1275
St Louis, King of France, attacks Tunis.
1276
Marinid Abu Yusuf (Zeneta Berber) invades
Spain.
1299
New Fes begun in Morocco.
1299-1307
Siege of
Tlemcen by Marinid ruler Abu Ya'qub (Morocco).
1304
The greatest
medieval, Berber traveller Ibn Battuta was born in Tangier in
Morocco. In 1325 he set out on his journey across North Africa
to Mecca. From there he visited most of the countries of the
Near East (although some say never went that far). In
1331 he travelled down the east coast of Africa to Mogadishu and Mombassa. Then
he returned to Morocco in 1349. He travelled to Spain in 1350, and then went
back south to the Western Sahara and Mali. Some of the things he said were doubted
by historians. One of the observations he made was that slaves commanded higher
prices than gold; when he went home, he was part of a caravan
carrying 600 female slaves from Takedda in Mali. He returned
to Morocco in 1353, and began writing his stories.
1316-30
The Christian
Kingdom of Abyssinia was revived by a new line of kings, the
Solomonids, who claimed descent from King Solomon. They
halted the Muslims' advance into the highlands and conquered the
pagans' territories south of the Blue Nile.
1331-1351
Accession of
Marinid Abu Al-Hasan (Morocco); Marinids take Tlemcen;
Christians defeat Marinids in Spain (Andalus); Fall of Algeciras,
expulsion of Marinids; Marinid Abu I-Hasan conquers Afriqya;
Rebellion of Abu I-Hasan's son Abu'nan (Morocco); Death of
Abu I-Hasan, succeeded by Abu Inan.
1352-1358
Marinid Abu Inan
reconquers Afriqya; Death of Abu lnan; Marinid power
weakened; Ziyanids recover Tlemcen (Morocco).
1362-91
Reign of Nasrid
Muhammad al-Ghani at Granada (Andalus); Hafsids recover Afriqya
(Afriqya).
1400
Mali lost
control of Songhay Kingdom.
1402-1405
The Portuguese
Prince Henry conquered the Canary Islands.
1402-1797
Spaniards'
genocide of the Berber Guanche people of the Canary Islands:
extinction.
1415-1431
Portuguese seize
Ceuta (Morocco), Portugal's first venture; A Chinese fleet
visited East Africa (first large ships started to appear in China
and Portugal); The Portuguese discover Madeira Island and the
Azores in 1431, and by 1460 they reached Sierra Leone.
1455-1458
Wars of the Roses
begin (UK); Portuguese take Alcazarquivir [Al-Qaser-Quivir],
Tangier, Larache and Azemmour.
1464
The King Ali
ascended the throne of Songhay, conquered Timbuctoo (an important
point in the lucrative gold and slave trafficking) in
1469, and Jenne in 1473.
1471
In Morocco the
Marinids were replaced by the Wattasids.
1478-1492
The Spanish
conquered Gran Canaria;
Christian monarchs conquer Granada (Andalus).
1492
Christopher
Columbus made Gomera (Canary Islands) his last place of call
when he sailed to re-discover the Americas.
1496
The Spanish
conquered Tenerife.
1535
The French and the
Ottomans signed a treaty: the French became the ranking
foreign community in Tunis.
1516-1551
Ottoman Pashas
appointed by Turkish Sultan; The Mamluks replaced by the
Ottomans; The Ottomans occupied Tripolitania, Algeria in
1555, and Tunisia in 1574; In 1551 the Muslims took Tripoli
again.
1571-1573
The Spanish invaded Tunis in 1573.
1578
Almansur: the Portuguese sent the biggest army
they had ever sent overseas to land in Morocco - around 30,000
men. The King of Portugal himself was in command of the army and met the local
king in the battle of the three kings. Three kings died: King
of Portugal, his Sultan, and the Moroccan king, who was ill and
died in the 'process'. It is also known as the battle of the
Big Castle (Al-Qaser Al-Kabir). Most of the Portuguese army was
finished or captured and, later, Portugal fell to Spain. The Moroccan
prince succeeded to the throne and took the title Almansur (the
Victorious). In 1590, The prince
Almansur took the Kingdom of Songhay into his empire, and gold
flowed in.
1603
In 1603, Ahmad Almansur, the king of Morocco,
made a proposal to his English ally Queen Elizabeth I. Had
Elizabeth accepted, the plan would have completely changed the
history of the modern world. The Moors needed the help of the
English to colonise America by attacking the Spanish colonies,
and keep it under joint dominion (ref: Turks, Moors & Englishmen
In The Age of Discovery, by Nabil Matar, Columbia).
1655
Algerian pirates apprehended (stopped) by the British.
1655-1657
Seizure of
Gibraltar contemplated by the English; Main Spanish fleet
destroyed at Tenerife (Canary Islands) by the English.
1700s
The authorities in
Tripoli, Tunis and Algiers enjoyed a state of near independence.
1711
Ahmed Karamanli captures Tripoli.
1714
Tripolitania establishes complete independence
from the Ottomans.
1780s
The slave trade
reaching its peak: 100,000 Africans are kidnapped and sold a
year. By 1800 AD about five million Africans were sold to the
West. The population of black Africa increased sharply to about
60 million as opposed to 10 million living north of the Sahara.
1789-1815
The French Revolution; starts by Napoleon's invasion of Egypt (1798);
the battle of the Pyramids with the Mamluks; Defeated Napoleon returned home
a year later.
1801
Turkish Period,
Mohammed Ali (1801-1848); In 1811 he invited the Mumluk
leadership to a banquet in Cairo and massacred the lot;
In 1818 he controlled Arabia, and in 1820 took Nubia.
1807
The British
outlawed the slave trade; The British established military
presence in few cities along the east coast of Africa (for returned
or confiscated slaves and refugees), which later
became modern day Ghana, Sierra Leone and Liberia. This is the
day when organised politics began to take over and shape the future of
Africa and the world at large.
The prices of
slaves in Tripoli (given by Graberg, Swedish consul in 1822):
a black eunuch: 650 Spanish piastres
adult male; 100 Spanish piastres
youth; 70 to 80 Spanish piastres
boy under ten: 50 Spanish piastres
woman: 120 to 150 Spanish piastres
girl: 100 Spanish piastres
girl under ten: 50 to 60 Spanish piastres
a male African slave in Cairo was worth on average 2000 nisf-s in 1700 AD, 16000 in 1800 AD, and 40000 in 1850 AD.
"Among the more expensive were Abyssinian
girls and, most expensive of all, were the eunuchs who were used by
wealthier families to guard female abodes.(Magali Morsy, p. 63)."
1811
Tripoli took
Fezzan and gained control over the Tripoli-Bornu route.
1832
The Ottomans
re-establish control over Tripoli.
1863-1879
The Libyan population, in contrast to the explosion
taking place in Egypt, was decreasing, down
from 757,000 people in 1840s to 523,176 people in 1911; perhaps
excluding the Berber
Tuareg of the Sahara. The population of Egypt was nearly 5 million people by
1860, which
is the same as that of Morocco at the time. But by 1920, the Egyptians
grew to 14 million while the Moroccans only increased by one
and a half million (from 4 to 5.487 million).
Tunisia also remained around 2 million right
from 1800 to 1940, but it grew to 5 million by 1971. In
Algeria the population was around 4 million in 1800 AD, and
remained so until 1936 when it increased to 6.2 million.
In 1966 the population of Egypt more than doubled (30,075,858 ),
while the
Libyans were still less than 2 millions in 1968.